GHCi

• :reload reload all names in scope

• :quit

• :t 9 returns the type of 9

• :info [] returns lots of useful details about the implemented typeclasses

• :k Int returns the kind of Int

• :set prompt "\x03BB > " would change the command prompt to λ >

• :set -XExistentialQuantification sets up the language extension

You can give multiline input to GHCi as follows:

   *Main> :{
   *Main| let askname = do
   *Main|               putStrLn "What is your name?"
   *Main|               name <- getLine
   *Main|               putStrLn $ "Hello " ++ name
   *Main| :}
   *Main>

General syntax

Quick reference:

The best way to find out about these kind of constructs in ghci, e.g. :info <*>:

• (.) - Function composition

• <*>

• $

Guard syntax

​Guard Syntax allows us to conditionally check a statement within a pattern matching expression.

describeLetter :: Char -> String
describeLetter c
   | c >= 'a' && c <= 'z' = "Lower case"
   | c >= 'A' && c <= 'Z' = "Upper case"
   | otherwise            = "Not an ASCII letter"

'where' clause

Define inline bindings (e.g. to functions or values). The following example uses guards and a where clase:

bmiTell :: (RealFloat a) => a -> a -> String  
bmiTell weight height  
    | bmi <= 18.5 = "You're underweight, you emo, you!"  
    | bmi <= 25.0 = "You're supposedly normal. Pffft, I bet you're ugly!"  
    | bmi <= 30.0 = "You're fat! Lose some weight, fatty!"  
    | otherwise   = "You're a whale, congratulations!"  
    where bmi = weight / height ^ 2

'as' Pattern

The 'as' pattern (described here, here and here), gives us a way of matching a name for the entire element being pattern matched in a list:

The following would be read all as (x:xs):

capital :: String -> String  
capital "" = "Empty string, whoops!"  
capital all@(x:xs) = "The first letter of " ++ all ++ " is " ++ [x]

Modules

​This page from 'Learn you a Haskell' is a good reference.

• Import hiding

import Data.List hiding (nub)

Indentation

From this page, the golden rule of indentation is:

Code which is part of some expression should be indented further in than the beginning of that expression...All grouped expressions must be exactly aligned

But you can avoid indentation:

Indentation is actually optional if you instead use semicolons and curly braces

Types and Typeclasses

In the following snippet (reference):

• data means we're declaring a new type

• Expr is the type constructor

• I ..., Add ..., Mul ... are the value constructors

data Expr = I Int         -- integer constants
          | Add Expr Expr -- add two expressions
          | Mul Expr Expr -- multiply two expressions

• Adding deriving (Show) at the end of a data declaration automatically makes that type part of the Show typeclass (reference):

data Expr = I Int         -- integer constants
          | Add Expr Expr -- add two expressions
          | Mul Expr Expr -- multiply two expressions
          deriving (Show)

Record syntax declarations

​Syntactic sugar providing data accessors:

data Configuration = Configuration
    { username      :: String
    , localHost     :: String
    , remoteHost    :: String
    , isGuest       :: Bool
    , isSuperuser   :: Bool
    , currentDir    :: String
    , homeDir       :: String
    , timeConnected :: Integer
    }

You can pattern match against them:

getHostData (Configuration { localHost = lh, remoteHost = rh }) = (lh, rh)

And create new versions with certain fields overwritten using:

cfg { currentDir = newDir }

newtype declarations

For the moment, I treat newtype as being broadly interchangable with data when creating a new type. There's documentation about it here.

Typeclass: Semigroup

A set with an associative binary operation. Superset of Monoids.

Typeclass: Monoids

​Monoid is a typeclass with an associative mappend operation and an identity element.

Integer numbers form a monoid under addition with 0 as identity element Integer numbers form a monoid under multiplication with 1 as identity element Lists form a monoid under concatenation with the empty list as identity element

mappend is given the infix synonym (<>)

Generalised Algebraic Datatypes (GADTs)

The crux of GADTs is that the provide a way to explicitly declare the type signature of each constructor.

The following language option is required:

{-#LANGUAGE GADTs #-}

And then an example would be:

data Maybe a where
   Nothing  :: Maybe a
   Just :: a -> Maybe a

Miscellaneous

Template Haskell

​Template Haskell is similar to Lisp macros.

{-# LANGUAGE TemplateHaskell #-}

It is used e.g. by lens to generate the various lenses into data structures at compile time

Forall Keyword

forall imposes constraints on parameterising types when defining new data types